Belajar Bahasa Inggris: Desember 2017

Minggu, 31 Desember 2017

SOCIOLINGUISTICS - VARIETIES RESUME

VARIETIES

Hudson (1980: 24): a set of linguistic items with similar distribution.
Ferguson (1971: 30): any body of human speech patterns which sufficiently homogeneous to be analyzed by available techniques of synchronic description and which has a sufficiently large repertory of elements and their arrangements or process with broad enough semantic scope to function in all normal context of communication.
Wardaugh (1988: 20): a specific set of linguistic items or human speech patterns (presumably, sounds, words, grammatical features) which we can uniquely associate with some external factors (presumably, a geographical area and a social group).
Factors that contribute to variation: social situation, occupation, age, geography, education, gender, social status/class, ethnicity.

LANGUAGE AND DIALECT

Dialect: a language variety, spoken by a speech community, that is characterized by systematic features (e.g., phonological, lexical, grammatical) that distinguish it from other varieties of that same language
A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called a dialect.
Idiolect: the speech variety of an individual speaker
The study of dialect is called dialectology.

REGIONAL DIALECTS

A regional dialect is a distinct form of a language spoken in a particular geographical area. Also known as a regiolect or topolect.
Regional dialect is a variaty of language that is spoken in a geographical area for many hundred of years as seen in differences in pronunciations , in the choices and form of the word, and syntax.
As opposed to a national dialect, a regional dialect is spoken in one particular area of a country. In the USA, regional dialects include Appalachian, New Jersey and Southern English, and in Britain, Cockney, Liverpool English and 'Geordie' (Newcastle English). . . .
In Indonesia like : (Ngapak Javanese, Yogya Javanese).
Examples of different regional dialects: Example one: in British English: pavement, boot, bonnet, petrol, baggage. But in American English: sidewalk, trunk, hood, gas, luggage. Example two: the word tog in English refers to clothes one wears in formal dinner, but in New Zealand, it refers to clothes one wears to swim in.

More detail, you can look at the pdf format below!

SOCIOLINGUISTICS - TABOO & EUPHEMISM QUESTION

Give definition and example of taboo and euphemism? And how come both of them are different? Taboo is word or act not supposed to be done or said. Meanwhile, euphemism consists of word to use to minimize shock. The example of taboo is the unmarried girl sit on the pillow. The example of euphemism is used of the term ‘tuna grahita’ refers to an idiot; ‘tuna aksara’ refers to someone who cannot read and write.
Why sex categorized as taboo although it is taught in school? Sex categorized as taboo as long as the word related to the sex causes offensive or hurt someone feeling. And in other culture, it becomes taboo when it could invite bad luck. Thus, sex could be taught in school with the limitation without offensive other people.
Can we erase the relationship in kinship? This question needs to be revised to make clearly. But, in my point of view, we cannot erase the relationship in kinship.

More detail, you can look at the PDF format below!

SOCIOLINGUISTICS - SPEECH COMMUNITIES

This is a Sociolingustics PPT about speech communities.
All of materials was taken from An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (Fifth Edition) by Ronal Wardhaugh.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS - RESUME

PART 2 LANGUAGE AND COMMUNITIES

Dialects

A language variety, spoken by a speech community, that is characterized by systematic features (e.g., phonological, lexical, grammatical) that distinguish it from other varieties of that same language
A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called a dialect.
Wardaugh (1988: 20): a specific set of linguistic items or human speech patterns (presumably, sounds, words, grammatical features) which we can uniquely associate with some external factors (presumably, a geographical area and a social group)
Factors that contribute to variation: social situation, occupation, age, geography, education, gender, social status/class, ethnicity.

Regional Dialect

A regional dialect is a distinct form of a language spoken in a particular geographical area. Also known as a regiolect or topolect.
Regional dialect is a variety of language that is spoken in a geographical area for many hundred of years as seen in differences in pronunciations, in the choices and form of the word, and syntax.
As opposed to a national dialect, a regional dialect is spoken in one particular area of a country. In the USA, regional dialects include Appalachian, New Jersey and Southern English, and in Britain, Cockney, Liverpool English and 'Geordie' (Newcastle English). . . .
In Indonesia like : (Ngapak Javanese, Yogya Javanese).

Examples of different regional dialects:

Example one: in British English: pavement, boot, bonnet, petrol, baggage. But in American English: sidewalk, trunk, hood, gas, luggage.
Example two: the word tog in English refers to clothes one wears in formal dinner, but in New Zealand, it refers to clothes one wears to swim in.

Social Dialects

Varieties of a language used by people belonging to particular social classes.
A variety of language that reflects social variation in language use, according to certain factors related to the social group of the speaker such as education, occupation, income level (upper-class English, middle-class English and lower-class English.
For example: Standard English can be classified as a type of social English spoken by the well-educated English speakers throughout the world. Received Pronunciation (the Queens English) or BBC English (the accent of the beast educated and most prestigious members of English society) is classified as a social accent.
In sociolinguistics, social dialect is a variety of speech associated with a particular social class or occupational group within a society. Also known as sociolect.
Social dialect: Differences in speech associated with various social group or place. http://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/socialdialectterm.htm
Various Factors to Determine Social Position: occupation, place of residence, education, income, racial origin, cultural background, caste, etc.
For example, among older European-American speakers in Charleston, South Carolina (the absence of r in words such as bear and court is associated with aristocratic, high-status groups (McDavid 1948). Whereas in New York City the same pattern of r-lessness is associated with working-class, low-status groups (Labov 1966).

More detail, look at the PDF file below!.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS - MID EXAMINATION

Instructions:

Choose any 10 of the following test items.

Answer the questions clearly in brief sentences.

Submit your work to yanmujiyanto@gmail.com NOT later than 30 April 2017.

Write as your Email Subject, for instance Socio-Mid 2222222 Edy Wahyudi

What obstacles do you see in an attempt to define English as a language when you consider that such a definition must cover region and socio-cultural aspects?
What evidence can you use to show the fact that languages vary? Consider, for example, How many ways can you pronounce variants of and, have, do, of, and for?
Describe some aspects of your own speech which show how it varies from the speech of certain other people. Do you pronounce words differently, or use different grammatical structures?
If men and women speak differently, is it because the common language they share has a gender bias or because part of ‘gender marking’ is the linguistic choices one can or must make?
Standard languages are usually based on an existing dialect of the language. What can you find out about the difficulties of choosing a variety for standardization in Indonesia?
How would you evaluate Singapore English according to the criteria of standardization, vitality, historicity, autonomy, and de facto norms?
The fact that Standard English can be spoken with a variety of accents often poses certain difficulties for the teaching of English in non-English-speaking countries. What are some of the problems you might encounter and how might you try to solve them?
What do you regard as the characteristics of a ‘good’ speaker of English and of a ‘poor’ speaker? Consider such matters as pronunciation, word choice, syntactic choice, fluency, and style.
If someone told you that pidginized varieties of a language are ‘corrupt’ and ‘ungrammatical,’ and that their speakers are either ‘lazy’ or ‘inferior’ how might you try to show that person how wrong he or she is?
Pidgins and creoles have been said to have ‘the grammar of one language and the vocabulary of another.’ In what sense is such a statement true, false, or a bit of both?
Use of the term code allows us to use derivative terms like codification and recodification. Writing systems are said to be codifications of speech. How do the English and Chinese writing systems differ as codifications of their respective languages?
How ‘diglossic’ are classroom situations in which children who come to school speaking only a regional or social variety of English well removed from the standard variety are taught the standard variety and its various uses, particularly its use in writing?
When you visit a foreign country whose language you know either well or poorly, when do you use that language and when do you not? What factors govern your choice?
Describe the linguistic uses of some bilinguals with whom you are familiar. If you are bilingual yourself, in what ways do you identify with people who show the same range of linguistic abilities?
Most of us know someone who has a repertoire of linguistic abilities that we admire, possibly envy. Try to specify some of these abilities that you yourself seem to lack. Why does the other have these abilities and you do not?
Which linguistic variables might be usefully investigated in the world in which you live; that is, what kinds of variation have you noticed around you, and how might you characterize the variation using the concept of the ‘linguistic variable’?
How would you try to place individuals according to their social position in the community in which you live? What factors would you consider to be relevant, and how would you weight each?

My answer could be seen on the PDF file below!

SOCIOLINGUISTIC - CONVERSATIONAL CATEGORY

CONVERSATIONAL CATEGORY QUESTIONS
(These questions raised in question and answer session during presentation)

What is the characteristic of planned and unplaned speech?

Characteristics of planned speech are less of repetition, less of filler paused, less of false starting, has systematic structure of speech and word chosen understandable for the listener.
Characteristics of unplanned speech are many repetition, filler paused occur, and the structure of speech is unsystematic.

What is a characteristic of a good and poor conversation?

Characteristics of good conversational are there is eye contact between speakers, using familiar words to avoid misunderstanding, share each other (balance turn-taking)
Characteristic of poor conversational are there is dominated speaker in taking turn to speak, much overlapping of one/some speaker, and inappropriate answer/ respond toward the question.

How come a performative utterance failed?

The performative failed when there is no thoughts, feelings and intensions exist for doing whatever is to be done and must specify who must say and do what and in what circumstances.

SOCIOLINGUISTIC - (POLITENESS & SOLIDARITY)

POLITENESS AND SOLIDARITY

(These questions raised in question and answer session during presentation)

What are solidarity and politeness? and are there any relationship between them?

Brown & Gilman (1960) defined social relationships in terms of power and solidarity.

Forms which indicate POWER establish who has authority and how great that authority is.
Forms which indicate SOLIDARITY establish the degree of intimacy in the relationship.

POLITENESS is social deixis that expresses a low degree of solidarity between the speaker and the addressee.

There is relation between Solidarity and politeness when the degree of intimacy in the relationship (ex. Friend to friend) is high (close), the level of politeness in addressing each other will be low (familiar, more open).

What is the different between Symmetrical and assymmetrical T/V usage?

Symmetrical usage to show intimacy, and its use for that purpose also spread to situations in which two people agreed they had strong common interests, i.e., a feeling of solidarity.
Asymmetrical usage as a symbol of power relationship, where the upper classes addressed the lower classes with T but received V.

SOCIOLINGUISITC - ETHNOGRAPHY QUESTION

Which one is broader between practical reasoning and scientific reasoning? Can practical become scientific?

Practical reasoning refers to the way in which people make use of their commonsense knowledge and to how they employ that knowledge in their conduct of everyday life. Whereas, scientific reasoning refers to reasoning based on the fact/scientific data. From those definitions, it can be sum up that practical reasoning is broader than scientific reasoning because it’s based on the people point of view that could be vary among them.
Practical reasoning could become scientific reasoning when the reason proves scientifically.

How come silence become communication?

In reality, silence can be a very effective communication tool. Communication is simply about conveying a message, and sometimes silence does better than any words.

Example: In a Christian marriage ceremony the minister addresses the participants thus: ‘‘If anyone here can show just cause why this man and woman should not be joined together in matrimony let him speak now or forever hold your peace’’. If no one stands up and speaks, this individual and collective silence is taken to express a negative answer, as if each participant has said - referentially, ‘‘No, I have no just cause to say that’’. The chairperson at a meeting will likewise ask participants if they have further information; if no one speaks, this individual and collective silence is taken as a negative answer, as if each participant has said - referentially, ‘‘No, I have nothing to add and no comment to make’’.

Rabu, 27 Desember 2017

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION COURSE - MID TERM ASSIGNMENT (VARIABILITY, PRAGMATIC AND SOCIAL ASPECT ANALYSIS AS LINGUISTIC PHENOMENA

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION COURSE - VARIABILITY RESUME

VARIABILTY

Variability refers to cases where a second language learner uses two or more linguistic variants to express a phenomenon, which has only one realization in the target language.

Horizontal variation ‘refers to the variation evident in learner language at a particular moment or stage in a learner’s development.’ (Ellis, 1994:705) This is also commonly referred to as synchronic variation.
Horizontal variation is variation dependent on demands of task type, situation, and language • Vertical variation ‘refers to the differences in learner language evident from one time to another. It reflects the development that is taking place in the learner’s interlanguage’ (Ellis, 1994:728). This type of variation is also commonly referred to as diachronic variation.
Vertical variation is that variation that represents a change in a learner’s knowledge over time.

FREE VARIATION

Free Variation refers to the phenomenon that the learner possesses two or more form (variation), which he/she use to realize the same range of meanings.

An research by Ellis (1989) They were produced by an eleven-year-old Portuguese boy (whom I shall call 'J') who was the subject of a longitudinal study. When 'J' arrived in Britain he was placed almost immediately in a language centre where he received day-long instruction in English. At the start of the study 'J' was an almost complete beginner. His productive English was limited to a few words.

1. No look my card.

2. Don’t look my card.

The data were collected inside the classroom using a pencil-and-paper record of all the spontaneous speech (i.e. not speech elicited in instructional drills of any kind) that 'J' produced. An audio recording of each lesson was used to check the accuracy of the pencil-and-paper record. 'J' was visited once each week for a minimum of one hour throughout the school year. Before discussing these data, a few comments about J's use of negative utterances are in order.

In the first month J produced a total of 18 spontaneous negative utterances.4 Out of these, 17 used the 'no' negation, as in utterance (1), and only one used 'don't'. Thus utterance (2) was the solitary example of a 'don't' negative in the first few weeks of the study.

In the next month, however, the proportion of 'don't' negatives increased substantially, although 'no' negatives were still more frequent.

It was not until the sixth month that negatives containing 'not' (i.e. either 'don't' or 'aux + not') were in the majority. This pattern of development parallels that reported in other studies (e.g. Cazden et al. 1975; Wode 1976).

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION COURSE - TYPOLOGY OF VARIABILTY IN LEARNER LANGUAGE

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION COURSE - SOCIAL FACTORS AND SECOND LANGUAGE RESUME

Social Factors and Second Language Acquisition

Social factors have a major impact on L2 proficiency but probably do not influence it directly. Rather, their effect is mediated by a number of variables. One set of variables which have been found to be of major importance is learner attitudes.
Social factors help to shape learners' attitudes which, in turn, influence learning outcomes. Social factors also influence L2 learning indirectly in another way. They determine the learning opportunities which individual learners experience.

Social Models of L2 Acquisition

Learner attitude, manifest attitude toward: target language, target language speaker, target language culture, the social value of learning the L2, particular uses of the target language and themselves as members of their own culture

In general

Learner with positive attitude

Will success and have attitude reinforced.
Can be expected to enhance learning in its speaker and its culture

Learner with negative attitude

Learners’ negative attitudes may be strengthened by lack of success.
Impede learning in enhance its speaker and its culture

Social Factor and Second Language Acquisition

There are some variables which influence the attitude which are ...

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION COURSE - PRAGMATIC ASPECTS RESUME

INTRODUCTION

The growing interest in interlanguage pragmatics reflects the enormous developments in the theoretical and empirical study of pragmatics over the last two decades (see Levinson 1983 Coulthard 1985 Hatch 1992, for surveys of the field).

Pragmatics is the term used to refer to the field of study where linguistic features are considered in relation to users of the language (Levinson1983).
Pragmatics is the study of communicative action in its sociocultural context. Communicative action includes not only speech acts - such as requesting, greeting, and so on - but also participation in conversation, engaging in different types of discourse, and sustaining interaction in complex speech events.
When speakers perform utterances in context they accomplish two things:

Interactional acts impose structure on the discourse by ensuring that one utterance leads smoothly to another.
Speech acts constitute attempts by language users to perform specific actions, in particular interpersonal functions.

Interlanguage Pragmatics is defined as the study of 'learners' use and acquisition of linguistic action patterns in a second language (Bardovi-Harlig, 1996 Kasper, 1999 Rose, 2000).
There is a basic premise in interlanguage pragmatics that it is not enough just to know the equivalent words and phrases in a second language (L2). Learners need to determine the situationally-appropriate utterances, namely what can be said, where it can be said, when it can be said, and how to say it most effectively.

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION COURSE - INPUT IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION COURSE - ERRORS RESUME

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION COURSE - DEVELOPMENT PATTERN RESUME

DISCOURSE STUDY PPT II

These are the second part of discourse study ppt collection. This section include some material such as 1. Theme-Rheme 2. Coherence 3. Spoken language 4. Appraisal 5. Cycles & stages 6. Genres Happy Reading!

DISCOURSE STUDY PPT I

These PPTs was displayed during Discourse Study course in my Second Semester. These consists of some materials are: 1. communicative competence; 2. Discourse competence; 3. Discourse intro; 4. Discourse vs. text; 5. Text in context; 6. Cohesion; all of these PPT was written by Dra. Helena I. R. Agustien, M.A , Ph.D. May be useful.

Minggu, 31 Desember 2017

Rabu, 27 Desember 2017

Selasa, 26 Desember 2017